Identifying the Pattern of Job Coaching Skills on Supported Employment in Adults with Intellectual Disability: A Thematic Analysis Study

Individuals with intellectual disabilities have long existed throughout the world and form a part of every culture. They are a part of the vast diversity of human societies (Byrne, 2022). According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), this disability is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the individual, family, and community (Niazi & Siadatian, 2023). According to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD, 2022), intellectual disability involves significant limitations in intellectual functioning (such as reasoning, learning, and problem-solving) and adaptive behaviors (including conceptual, social, and practical skills), which become apparent during the developmental period before the age of 22. It's important to note that individuals with intellectual disability constitute around 1% of the total population (Totsika et al., 2022; Jabbari et al., 2023). Approximately 85% of individuals with intellectual disabilities fall into the mild category and require limited support throughout their lives. With the appropriate support, these individuals can achieve significant independence in life (Bjelland & Bruyère, 2023). These individuals face greater difficulties in learning and it takes longer for them to learn than their typically developing peers (Malekpour & Nasayi Moghadam, 2014). The primary goal of educating this group is to prepare them for their future job and to acquire the necessary skills for living in society. Rehabilitation efforts only succeed when they can play a role in society (Norouzi, 2014).

It was reported in 2023 that about 6.5 million people in the United States have intellectual disabilities, but only 19.1% of them are employed, compared to a 61.8% employment rate for those without disabilities. It means that less than half of working-age adults with intellectual disabilities are in the workforce, and 28% have never had a job. The unemployment rate for individuals with intellectual disabilities is four times higher than that of people without disabilities, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2023. In Norway, less than 3% of individuals with intellectual disabilities are competitively employed (Sigstad & Garrels, 2023). Studies in Australia show that individuals with intellectual disabilities face more challenges in finding a job compared to those with other disabilities and often require additional support. Based on data from the Australian National Disability Insurance Agency (2021), 12% of individuals with intellectual disabilities are employed in this country, while around 32% of people with other disabilities and 55% of the general population are employed. In Iran, no official statistics on the employment status of this group has been published, but studies indicate that these individuals have not been able to achieve adequate job functioning (BeheshtiZadeh Bafghi & Pakmehr, 2020).

Employment is crucial for the physical and mental well-being of individuals with intellectual disabilities. Meaningful work helps adults live independently, get married, access healthcare, connect with others, and contribute to society (Fryers, 2006). Conversely, unemployment is associated with income inequality, poverty, poor physical and mental health, limited healthcare access, social isolation, mental illness, and suicide (McKee et al., 2005).

Supported employment is an effective intervention for helping individuals with mild intellectual disabilities to secure and retain jobs. It represents a significant paradigm shift from providing vocational services in day programs and sheltered workshops to competitive employment in mainstream workplaces (Yanos et al., 2018). Supported employment aims to assist people with severe disabilities obtain competitive employment in inclusive work settings (Wehman et al., 2014). The data from previous meta-analyses reveals that supported employment significantly increased the possibility of obtaining competitive employment by 2.4 times and finding a job through other means by 3.24 times (Kinoshita et al., 2013). Supported employment is a theory in vocational rehabilitation that aims to assist individuals with severe disabilities in securing competitive employment in society. It could be achieved through collaborative strategies to attain sustainable jobs. In recent years, the application of supported employment has broadened to include individuals with various severe disabilities such as spinal cord injuries, emotional disorders, ex-offenders, and those recovering from drug and alcohol addiction (Frederick & VanderWeel, 2019). Furthermore, supported employment follows a social approach. According to this approach, the individual does not need to change to adapt to a specific job. Rather, the focus is on finding a natural "fit" between the individual's strengths, experiences, and jobs in the community (Kawano et al., 2022). The support provided to individuals with intellectual disabilities should empower them to obtain and maintain suitable employment opportunities throughout their lives (McDonnall et al., 2017). Yanos and colleagues (2018) identified the following benefits of state-supported employment for individuals with intellectual disabilities: working in public environments can boost the individual's morale, enhance self-awareness and understanding of society, ensure earning at least the minimum wage according to labour laws, offer continued support for up to two years after employment, provide opportunities for self-employment, and offer internships. The supported employment method consists of five main steps. The first step is the agreement, where the key points should be discussed and decided upon between the job seeker and the coach. In the second step, the job coach creates a job file and thoroughly assesses the individual's abilities. In the third step, based on the evaluations and assessments of strengths, talents, and skills, the job coach starts searching for a job.  The appropriate job should align with the individual's personality and interests. In the fourth step, after selecting a job and an employer, the job seeker is taught how to conduct a job interview and write a resume. In the final step, the job coach continues to provide the necessary support to the individual at and outside the work environment until the individual adapts to the work environment (Karbelai et al., 2020).

The success of supported employment relies heavily on the job coach, who plays a crucial role in helping individuals achieve their employment goals and long-term success. One of the most important tasks of the job coach is to assist individuals in finding real employment opportunities that provide wages (Wehman, 2007). They should help job seekers identify their interests and the way interests align with suitable jobs in society. It is important to recognize the value that individuals with intellectual disabilities can bring to the business community and to identify workplace supports that can help them quickly engage in meaningful work (Frederick & VanderWeele, 2019). The job coach must have a strong understanding of the principles of supported employment and be capable of effectively implementing all its stages, as improper implementation could jeopardize the immediate or long-term job stability of the job seeker (Wehman, 2018).

Research has indicated that job coaching has a significant positive impact on various aspects. The application of the coaching model leads to improved individual performance, enhanced self-regulation abilities, better job attitudes, increased well-being, and improved coping skills (Theeboom et al., 2014). Bozer and Jones (2018) discussed the outcomes of seven main coaching structures and, found that job coaching is associated with increased self-efficacy, which plays a significant role in goal achievement, task completion, and overcoming challenges (Jo et al., 2018). Additionally, Jones et al. (2015) noted that coaching also has a significant impact on organizational outcomes, particularly for job seekers. Grover and Furnham (2016) highlighted the substantial return on investment for coaching and demonstrated its lasting and sustainable influence on organizations.

The study conducted by the issue that Obeng et al. in 2021 demonstrated, that the managerial coaching had significant effects on both organizational climate and job performance. Similarly, in Iran, Habashi Zadeh and colleagues (2006) examined how job coaching by supervisors affected the morale of nursing staff and patient satisfaction in a teaching hospital in Tehran, with the results indicating the effectiveness of this method. Furthermore, Ahmadi and Shafii-Abadi (2008) found that job counseling in a coaching style had a positive influence on university graduates' attitudes toward the job market and improved their job-seeking skills. Although the importance of job coaching in the context of supported employment has been studied, the specific components of job coaching have not been thoroughly examined. There is a lack of a comprehensive definition of job coaching and its role in employment, particularly for adults with intellectual disabilities. Additionally, there are few studies about applying state-supported recruitment in Iran, making this a relatively new topic. Additionally, there are limited studies on applying state-supported recruitment in Iran, making it a relatively new topic. Given the importance of job coaching in job orientation, particularly for individuals with intellectual disabilities, it is essential to define and clarify the coaching model for individuals, families, employers, and colleagues. Also, it is crucial to outline its role in helping individuals acquire unique and diverse skills. Therefore, identifying the necessary skills for job coaching is undeniable. This study aims to recognize the skills required for job coaching to guide individuals with intellectual disabilities toward stable and meaningful employment based on the supported employment model.

Method

This qualitative research utilized a thematic analysis approach based on the Attride-Sterling (2001) network model. Thematic analysis involves identifying and organizing themes to summarize data from various sources in a networked manner. In the Attride-Sterling model, data are categorized as follows: 1) Basic themes: Initial themes derived from primarily related concepts. 2) Organizing themes: Second-level themes that re-summarize related basic themes. 3) Global themes: Final themes resulting from the grouping of organizing themes (Attride-Stirling, 2001). Accordingly, to obtain the themes, the steps were as follows:

1. Reviewing the relevant research articles and dissertations in reputable Persian and foreign databases and publications such as ScienceDirect, Sagepub, ERIC, Wiley Online Library, Springer, PubMed, ProQuest, Noormags, SID, Magiran, and Irandoc. The search involved keywords like intellectual disability, supported employment, and job coaching to identify articles published between 2005 and 2023. Moreover, all sources cited in the identified articles were reviewed. 
2. After the initial search, articles were screened through title and abstract review to eliminate irrelevant or duplicate sources. 
3. The full text of all remaining articles was evaluated by two judges based on inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify eligible studies. Out of 385 research studies, 43 sources were selected.
4. The inclusion criteria were comprised: a) studies examining supported employment. b) studies focusing on job coaching. c) studies investigating the employment status of individuals with intellectual disabilities; and d) studies published in reputable scientific databases.

The exclusion criteria were: a) Articles published in conferences or non-reputable journals. b) Studies conducted with unrelated objectives and results. c) Inability to access the full text of the article or necessary information. The process of this research stage is in Figure 1.

       Figure 1. Flowchart of identifying information sources

                In the second stage, after data collection, the researcher carefully extracted all the semantic units from these information sources and started coding them. Codes were organized to align information. The implementation process was as follows:

Data Preparation:

1. All initial data were reviewed line by line and sentence by sentence, coded manually, and typed.
2. The initial codes were extracted.
3. After removing the duplicate codes, the "basic themes" were identified.

Data Organization: The basic themes were analyzed, and the conceptually similar ones were categorized based on shared content. In this way, "organizing themes" were created.

Table 1. Demographic Information of Specialists

Data reporting: Then, by examining the organizing themes, the researcher tried to place them in a more general category called "global themes" and integrated them into the process. This resulted in the development of the initial model for the pattern of career coaching skills in supported employment.

Finally, the Waltz and Basel content validity index (CVI) was used to assess the developed model's content validity. The complete content of the program, along with a Likert scale with four options —"Not relevant, score 1," "Relatively relevant, score 2," "Relevant, score 3," and "Completely relevant, score 4"— was provided to five professors and experts in the field of children with special needs and five experts in supported employment to judge the developed model and evaluate the appropriateness, efficiency, and comprehensiveness of each element according to the themes presented in it. After collecting the data from the experts' evaluations and using the Content Validity Index (CVI) to determine their agreement, the following thresholds were established: If the agreement obtained is less than 0.70, the content should be removed. If it falls between 0.70 and 0.79, it should be reviewed again, and if it is higher than 0.79, it is considered acceptable. This process led to the development of the final five-faceted model of career coaching skills for supported employment of people with intellectual disabilities. Demographic information related to the specialists can be found in Table 1.

Results

The themes were identified by carefully studying various information sources to extract important content and expressions. The utilized articles are specified in Table 2.

Table 2.  List of Eligible Articles for Research

The phrases and sentences were multiple times reviewed carefully and thoroughly to ensure that redundant and repetitive items were eliminated. The data that could potentially impact supported employment for individuals with intellectual disabilities were identified. As a result, 315 significant phrases and sentences were obtained. Consequently, initial concepts were extracted. The examples can be found in Table 3.    

     Table 3. The Examples of Extracting Initial Concepts from Important Phrases and Sentences

The initial concepts were grouped based on semantic similarities, and 85 basic themes were identified after multiple reviews. Basic themes were then organized and merged to form broader categories, resulting in 13 organizing themes. Finally, after discrimination of the organizing themes, the global themes were also determined to provide a comprehensive description of information. There were five global themes in total, which were related to job coaching skills for supported employment in indviduals with intellectual disabilities. The results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.  Basic, Organizing and Global Themes Identified in the Research

 The findings presented in Table 4 indicate that the factors influencing job coaching skills for supported employment of individuals with intellectual disabilities can be grouped into five categories: 1) Emotional-Affective Skills, 2) General Skills, 3) Specialized Skills, 4) Cultural and Societal Awareness, and 5) Earning Skills. These categories can form a five-faceted model of job coaching skills for supported employment. To assess the content validity of the developed model, experts evaluated the "relevance" of each content, and the results are detailed in Table 5.

Table 5. The Degree of Experts' Agreement with the Results of the Theme Analysis

The data illustrated in Table 5 reveals that all themes have a content validity index (CVI) surpassing 0.80, with an average CVI of 0.9 for the identified themes, signifying excellent content validity. Consequently, none of the components from the initial model were excluded. As a result, a final model outlining five facets of job coaching skills for supporting the employment of individuals with intellectual disabilities was developed, as depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2. The Five-Faceted Model of Job Coaching Skills for Supported Employment in Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities

Discussion

Employment of individuals with mild intellectual disabilities in the workforce is crucial for society. It brings many benefits to individuals, their families, and the community. Supported employment has proven to be a successful approach for integrating this group into the workforce. The main objective of supported employment is to offer individuals with disabilities real job opportunities with real benefits. In Iran, the implementation of supported employment by the Welfare Organization is relatively recent, and only a few job support centers have been established in the country (Karbalai et al., 2020). Based on the reviews conducted, there is a scarcity of information on this subject within the country. The central element of supported employment is the job coach, and the success of this approach is heavily dependent on effective job coaching. Given the research gap, identifying the necessary skills for job coaching individuals with intellectual disabilities was the primary objective of this study. The findings revealed that job coaching for individuals with intellectual disabilities is a kind of multidimensional issue, and the coach needs different skills to be successful. The study identified five skills and abilities required for effective career coaching: emotional-affective skills, general skills, specialized skills, cultural and societal awareness, and earning skills.

Global Theme

 Emotional and Affective Skills

A review of literature and scientific sources indicates that job coaches possess distinct and unique characteristics in social and ethical skills. Coaching fosters a blame-free culture. A good coach provides support, listens attentively, and focuses the trainee's attention on the future.

Positive Attitude

A job coach is a benevolent individual motivated to solve societal problems. They must believe that individuals with intellectual disabilities have the necessary abilities for employment and can contribute positively to society. The coach understands that the criterion for judging people is their abilities. They should help the individual achieve self-awareness. The role of a coach is not to force or direct individuals but to allow them to identify and implement changes. The coach must support and encourage (Carlson & Munandar, 2020). The goal of a job coach is to protect individuals with intellectual disabilities to be effective and independent in their role. Typically, as the individual learns the job, the coach's support diminishes over time. A successful coach is confident, has personal integrity, and demonstrates a passion for challenging individuals with disabilities, deriving satisfaction from their success (Moradi & Shirazi, 2019; Grover & Furnham, 2016). It appears that the success of a job coach is less related to academic qualifications and more to personal style and philosophy. Positive, energetic, and enthusiastic individuals with a "can-do" attitude tend to perform well (Sigstad & Garrels, 2023).

Social Skills

Job coaching requires advanced social skills. The ability to empathize and understand others is a characteristic of a successful job coach (Agran et al., 2016). A coach should not fear interacting and communicating with different people and should be able to defend the rights of individuals with intellectual disabilities. Communication with individuals with intellectual disabilities, various specialists, families, employers, and workers is essential for job coaching (Abd Manaf et al., 2018). A job coach is not confined to a sedentary job but frequently visits workshops and factories, persuading employers to hire individuals with intellectual disabilities. Even after employment, the coach makes periodic visits to the workplace to ensure that necessary activities are in place to support the sustained employment of individuals with intellectual disabilities (Domanska & Chmyreva, 2016). A professional and efficient coach knows when to praise genuine effort, advise self-restraint, encourage stepping out of the comfort zone, provide strong support in facing challenges, and urge individuals with intellectual disabilities not to give up despite adverse outcomes.

Ethical Principles

Due to the nature of job coaching and the need for human interactions, a coach must adhere to ethical principles. They must be committed to maintaining confidentiality and respecting the rights of individuals with intellectual disabilities. Avoiding labeling, mockery, humility, and showing respect for individuals with intellectual disabilities are essential traits of a job coach (Slabbert & Hoole, 2021). The coach must always strive to protect the rights of individuals with intellectual disabilities in the workplace. To gather information and gain a correct understanding of individuals with intellectual disabilities, a job coach may use various methods, such as spending leisure time together or sharing meals. However, throughout these activities, the coach must respect the individual's personal and family privacy (Woo, 2015).

General Skills

Based on the research findings, general skills for job coaching include a thorough understanding of job coaching itself, familiarity with guidance and counseling principles, and proficiency in the use of technology.

Understanding Job Coaching

An individual stepping into the role of a job coach for people with intellectual disabilities must possess comprehensive knowledge about the definition, principles, goals, approaches, and processes involved in job coaching. A coach enables the individual to personally identify and implement solutions suitable to their circumstances (Brown & Kessler, 2014). The coach's responsibility is to clarify the path and environment for the individual. The methods used in job coaching are crucial for the successful transition of supported employees. Coaches play a pivotal role in helping employees learn how to perform their tasks according to the expectations of their supervisors (Bennett et al., 2010). A job coach supports an individual with a disability in their career, offering customized and flexible assistance in learning job tasks and responsibilities and navigating the social, cultural, and behavioral aspects of the workplace (Wehman et al., 2018).

Familiarity with Guidance and Counseling Principles

Job coaching and career counseling are distinct concepts. Job coaching focuses on the present situation and practical goals to advance disabled individuals, while career counseling may delve into past experiences or barriers that have led to current career challenges (Segers et al., 2011). Effective implementation of supported employment by a job coach requires guidance and counseling techniques and principles. The job coach needs to be an active listener, familiar with interview techniques, and proficient in gathering information through behavioral observation. Subsequently, the job coach should be able to utilize classification and data analysis techniques (Robles, 2012). Decision-making should rely on proper data collection and interpretation rather than assumptions, considering the effectiveness of job support and the progress of individuals with disabilities. Job coaches should be acquainted with various work environments and know how to collect and analyze data properly. After data collection, it is essential to design an individualized training program during the implementation process of supported employment (Ebner, 2021). Job coaching based on supported employment has been tested to assist employees with psychological and intellectual challenges in maintaining employment (Telle et al., 2016). Job coaching must address the individual issues of employees and their specific job positions (Marshal, 2014).

An important skill is using behavior modification techniques to change behaviors in individuals with intellectual disabilities. Behavioral issues such as anger, aggression, self-harm, property destruction, and repetitive behaviors are essential barriers to the employment of individuals with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disabilities (Engelbrecht et al., 2023). Research literature supports the use of behavior management strategies to reduce inappropriate behaviors such as aggression, self-harm, and property destruction (Ineson, 2015). Therefore, job coaches must have sufficient knowledge in this area.

Proficiency in the Application of Technology

In job coaching, technology has led to the development of new methods. Technology has brought about new methods in the field, and a proficient job coach should be skilled in using computers, smartphones, virtual interview techniques, video coaching, and covert audio coaching. They should be able to utilize these tools effectively. Job coaches also discuss technology and virtual support with individuals with disabilities. In virtually provided support, there are fewer opportunities for informal discussions between the job coach and the supervisor or manager. Video modeling is an evidence-based method widely applied for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Park, 2020). It involves showing recorded video clips that visually model targeted skills for the individual with a disability. After watching the entire video, the individual is asked to perform the task (Spivey & Mechling, 2016).

 Specialized Skills

In the domain of specialized skills, the research identified three critical areas: understanding individuals with intellectual disabilities, knowledge of supported employment, and proficiency in hard and soft skills. A job coach must be well-versed in these areas to protect individuals with intellectual disabilities effectively.

 Knowledge of Intellectual Disabilities

A job coach must map out the stages of career development, from assessing the strengths and limitations of the individual with a disability to analyzing job-related information. The coach is responsible for helping these individuals recognize their hidden talents and encouraging them to pursue their dream jobs with a solid plan. In doing so, these individuals can achieve their career goals (Scheef et al., 2016). Therefore, a job coach should have comprehensive knowledge of intellectual disabilities, including definitions, classifications, and the specific characteristics of this population. Additionally, the coach should be well-informed about comorbid disorders and behavioral traits within this group. Understanding the rights of individuals with intellectual disabilities, their employment and educational status in society, and the barriers to employment is crucial for the job coach to make informed decisions (Osa-Edoh, 2013). Instead of focusing on deficiencies, the coach should highlight positive attributes, emphasizing capacity and capability. Self-determination in job searching should be appreciated, and appropriate compensation should be provided (Wehman, 2018).

Knowledge of Supported Employment

The research findings emphasize that a job coach should be well-acquainted with the definition, goals, and execution stages of supported employment and comprehend its benefits for society, employers, and individuals with intellectual disabilities. The coach must be capable of teaching the principles and foundations of supported employment and should be skilled at executing all stages effectively. Any misstep at any level could impact both short-term and long-term job stability (Wehman et al., 2018). Supported employment requires the job coach to be highly competent and flexible to assess the employer's needs and match them with the individual's competencies and available resources. Additionally, training and support on the job are crucial aspects of supported employment. In some cases, ongoing support for both the employee and employer may be necessary (Callahan et al., 2011).

Understanding Hard and Soft Skills

Hard skills, encompassing technical job skills, the ability to use tools, and applied academic skills, are crucial for employing individuals with intellectual disabilities (Smith et al., 2022; Sethi, 2016). On the other hand, soft skills such as decision-making, problem-solving, verbal communication, receptiveness to feedback, planning, respect for others, following instructions, asking for help, flexibility, punctuality, respect for rules, and trustworthiness are also important. When it comes to employing individuals with intellectual disabilities, it is paramount for job coaches to recognize the significance of both hard and soft skills and plan accordingly. While technical skills are important, soft skills and personal attributes are vital for job retention. Individuals with intellectual disabilities often encounter barriers to employment, including a lack of necessary skills and insecurity in social situations (Kocmane et al, 2018). The ability to interact socially in the workplace has been identified as a key factor for employing people with disabilities (Phillips, 2014). Skills such as asking for help, seeking clearer instructions, and responding to critical feedback are crucial for job success. According to Smith et al. (2022), 85% of job success comes from having soft skills, while only 15% is related to technical skills and knowledge. It is noteworthy to mention that while hard and personal skills are commonly taught during education, soft skills relevant to the workplace receive less frequent coverage (Agran et al, 2016).

Cultural & Societal Awareness

It's important to acknowledge that the job market is constantly evolving, and some jobs may no longer exist. It's crucial to be able to apply skills in various work settings (Sigstad & Garrels, 2023). Furthermore, employment is a culture-dependent issue, and different types of jobs and regulations prevail in diverse societies. Therefore, a job coach needs to have a deep understanding of the local job market, as well as the knowledge of employment laws and regulations, such as working hours, insurance, wages, and benefits. This is essential to effectively advocate for the rights of individuals with intellectual disabilities (Wehman et al., 2014).

Understanding the Employment Context

A career coach should be familiar with the types of careers available in the local community and provide information to individuals with intellectual disabilities. It will help them choose a job that aligns with their interests, talents, and capabilities. Additionally, accommodating individuals with intellectual disabilities in work environments necessitates some environmental adaptations. The coach should have a good understanding of these adaptations and how to implement them. Research indicates that work-related supports have a significant impact on successful employment (Ellenkamp et al., 2016; Brown & Kessler, 2014). Ensuring job suitability is crucial; the job must match the individual's strengths, weaknesses, and interests. Successful employment for individuals with intellectual disabilities depends on coworkers and employers who provide a supportive environment. Flexibility and tolerance of others are essential. Changes in job tasks or the work environment, adjustments in communication exchanges, and assistance in social interactions may be needed. Furthermore, training is more effective when provided in a real environment, increasing the likelihood of success (Kawano et al., 2022). A job coach should be familiar with various types of workplace support and be prepared to facilitate the appropriate type and level of support to help the individual secure employment. The goal is to help workers become independent from the job coach as quickly as possible. Therefore, the job coach needs to learn how to recognize and facilitate the natural supports available in the workplace. Maintaining the health and safety of individuals in work environments is a top priority, so attention must be paid to health and safety principles.

Knowing the Rules and Regulations

The goal of supported employment is competitive work and equal rights with other members of society (Wehman, 2018). Therefore, familiarity with laws and regulations, insurance, wages, and the comprehensive law supporting the rights of people with disabilities is necessary. A job coach should be aware of the organizations that protect individuals with intellectual disabilities and are able to communicate with them. Being familiar with these rules, the career coach can refer the person with intellectual disability to the relevant organizations to receive facilities or services (Engelbrecht et al., 2023).

 Earning Skills

Implementing supported employment and job coaching certainly requires time and financial investment. Without careful planning for expenses and incomes, all activities may lead to failure. Therefore, a job coach must plan the duration and costs to ensure that the process is financially viable.

 Length of coaching period

The length of the coaching period is crucial for effective outcomes. The career coach must establish the frequency and duration of appointments to collect data and engage the relevant parties. Holding coaching sessions at short intervals helps sustain the trainee's motivation. These sessions can take different forms, such as role-playing or discussions, and can be conducted at various locations. It is essential to schedule appointments at times convenient for trainees and coaches. Additionally, it is important for the trainer and the trainee to collectively decide on the session duration (Segers et al., 2011).

Coaching Costs

A job coach should be familiar with marketing and audience attraction methods, costs, and ways to cover them, as well as the principles of contract design and the earnings from job coaching. Job coaching is energy-intensive and time-consuming; the cost and time required for coaching individuals with intellectual disabilities are essential factors that should be noticed (Niekerk, 2015).

Acknowledgments

Thanks to everyone who works selflessly for the employment of individuals with special needs, whose concern is reducing the suffering of families and individuals with special needs in adulthood.